Snowdonia/Eryri

A railway engineer by profession, his combined appeal for mathematical and scientific work, his very precise nature, his love of climbing and his gymnastic talent may well have drawn him to focus on what would have seemed to be an unusual amount of his time climbing on boulders. He spent hours exploring and perfecting technique which he would later transfer to his longer climbs. Although he climbed in the Alps, Karakoram, Himalaya, Mexico and all over the British Isles, he spent most of his Alpine career climbing in North Wales with his friends Crowley, Young and Archer Thompson. It was here, on the boulders of Llanberis Pass, that he first practiced the sport. It seems that he loved the concept of bouldering, and enjoyed the sort of strenuous play that would become popular fifty or sixty years later. He may well have been the first climber to appreciate bouldering for its own sake.

If you, like Eckenstein, have a love for the delicate and intricate art of bouldering then Snowdonia still has much to offer. Unfortunately, as bouldering has become more popular in the UK, the incidents of vandalism and littering have also become more common. Anyone who has climbed in the Pennines or the Peak District will know of the damage careless and irresponsible people have done to some of the more popular crags. Luckily the worst antics of England are yet to make their way to North Wales; so for the sake of everyone’s enjoyment, the environment and future access I ask you to follow the following 10 Commandments set out in Bowldro Gogledd Cymru/North Wales Bouldering (2004):

The area is now well explored and is known to have some of the finest bouldering in Britain. Of particular note are the Cromlech Boulders located high in the upper reaches of Llanberis Pass. With easy access and a massive density of quality problems ranging from V0- to V11, the area is rightfully popular and is definitely worth visiting by anyone – from novices to experts. It is fortunate that the boulders exist at all, as on the 6th of December 1973 they were within an hour or two of being blown up by the Gwynedd County Surveyor’s men for road widening purposes. Luckily for us, locals, climbers, historians, conservationists, geologists and ordinary people from all over Britain, had been campaigning diligently for the boulders to be saved, and at the 11th hour they were, through a direction from the then Secretary of State for Wales, Peter Thomas.

Other highlights such as the Clogwyn Bwthyn Idwal, The Orion Boulder and Gallt yr Ogof can be found in the Ogwen Valley; and in the Capel Curig area, the Plas y Brenin Boulder, Mallory Boulder and RAC Boulders add further interest to the area. The RAC Boulders are of particular note as they offer a good range of fun mid-grade problems away from the crowds that often plague the Cromlech Boulders. Another plus point for the RAC Boulders is that they are located in a nice little sun-trap, making them ideal for winter bouldering or when the sun has set over the generally sheltered and cold recesses of Llanberis Pass.

Bouldering in southern Snowdonia is less well documented however there are limited opportunities at locations such as Craig Cywarch and Craig yr Aderyn where small crags and pinnacles intersect the main rock faces. One site of particular note is Cae Du, a short section of coastal crag on the Meirionnydd coast between Fairbourne and Aberdyfi. The crags have some of the best bouldering in Snowdonia, and if it weren’t for their relative isolation from the area’s main climbing venues, they would surely be crawling with eager boulderers. As things stand though they are rarely visited, and instead offer a beautiful and tranquil location to while the afternoon away. It’s important to note that the crags are tidal, so if you do plan to head there be sure to check the tide timetables first.

Now you may be wondering what lakes Geraldus Cambrensis was describing when wrote about floating islands and one-eyed fish; as it happens both tales are founded in some truth. The floating island belongs to Llyn Dywarchen which sits between Y Garn and Mynydd Mawr in the Eifionydd (not to be confused with a second Llyn Dywarchen in the Rhinogydd). Geraldus and his party would have passed the lake on the way to Caernarfon while enlisting men for Third Crusade, and one can only imagine their surprise at seeing such a spectacle. The 'island' was in fact a large slab of peat, which had detached itself from the bottom of the lake and floated to the surface. Although it no longer exists, it was a point of interest for hundreds of years and in 1698 even attracted the attention of astronomer Edmund Halley (he of comet fame), who swam out to the island to satisfy himself that it really did float. The second lake is less obvious, and Geraldus was almost certainly exaggerating when he claimed that all the fish had only one eye. The most likely explanation is that he was describing the lamprey (sometimes known as lamprey eel), a kind of jawless fish (Agnatha) with a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. A number of subspecies occupy Snowdonia's lakes and rivers including Lamprey Sp. (Lampetra), Brook Lamprey (Lampetra planeri), Lampern (Lampetra fluviatilis) and Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). The fact that they are quite common throughout the area makes it extremely difficult to identify which lake Geraldus was refereeing to. I certainly won't be hazarding a guess, although it is likely to be one that was on the route he and his party travelled by on their way through Snowdonia.

Llyn Tegid - here be monsters and gwyniad(Photo by JoeHarris)

The largest natural lake in the area, and one which historically has received considerable attention, is Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake in English), which at its maximum extent it is 6.4km (4 miles) long and 1.6km (1 mile) wide, making it the largest natural body of water in Wales. The lake is an important international conservation site (it has both SAC Ramsar designations), teeming with aquatic life and has abundance of pike, European perch, trout, eel, and uniquely to Snowdonia, the Gwyniad. The Gwyniad (Coregonus lavaretus) is a type of freshwater whitefish, a relic of the last ice age, and geographically isolated from its parent species - the common whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus). The 18th century botanist Thomas Pennant said this of the lake's fish:

”...Its fish are pike, perch, trout, a few roach, and abundance of eels; and shoals of that Alpine fish, the Gwyniad which spawn in December and are taken in great numbers in spring and summer. Pike have been caught here of twenty-five pounds weight, a trout of twenty-two, a perch of ten and a gwyniad of five”

Pennant was probably another given over to over-exaggeration, since if he is to be believed, a ten pound perch would be a British record! Lying about the size of ones catch is clearly a timeless phenomenon among fish enthusiasts. The lake also contains the very rare mollusc Myxas glutinosa - the Glutinous snail. According to legend the lake is inhabited by a monster known affectionately as Teggie, typically it’s likened to a crocodile or small plesiosaur, and there have been many reported 'sightings', most of them since the 1920’s.

If Geraldus and Pennant were fond of telling a tall tale or two, their efforts were nothing when compared to Snowdonia's traditional folk tales originally passed down orally from generation to generation. It seems that every cave has a hidden treasure, every burial mound a horde of fairies (or Tylwyth Teg as they are known in Welsh) and every lake a monster. Glaslyn on Snowdon has its fair share of legends. The lake, originally named Llyn y Ffynnon Las (The Lake of the Green Well), has a sinister reputation; it's thought to be the abode of demons, be bottomless, have no fish, never freeze (it does though) and no birds fly across is waters.

Llyn Llydaw on Snowdon - when the water level was lowered in 1853 a stone age canoe was found indicating a long history of settlement on Snowdon (Photo by Nanuls)

According to various stories, any living creature brave enough to enter Glaslyn will swiftly succumb to a grizzly fate at the hands (or possibly tentacles) of a terrible monster. The monster, or so the legend goes, is the infamous Afanc, which originally lived in Llyn-yr-Afanc in the Conwy Valley. The Afanc was the scourge of the villagers who lived nearby, largely thanks to the creature’s irritating fondness of flooding the valley and destroying everything. One day the villagers, by now thoroughly fed up with having their livestock drowned and their crops washed away, held a meeting to try and work out what the best way of dealing with their monster problem was. After much deliberation, scratching of heads and arguing, it was decided that brute force just wouldn't work, and that the Afanc would have to be somehow enticed out of his pool and removed to a lake far away in the mountains, where he could cause no further trouble. For some reason Llyn y Ffynnon Las was chosen as the most suitable candidate for the monster's new home, and preparations were made straight away for his transportation. Naturally, the finest blacksmith in the land was hired to forge the strong iron chains that would bind and secure the Afanc, and Hu Gardan and his two long-horned oxen, which were of course the mightiest oxen in Wales, were sent for to come to Betws-y-coed in order to transport the thing.

Of course the Afanc still needed to be captured; luckily, like many other ugly great monsters, the Afanc had a thing for pretty young women... well who doesn't? The daughter of a local farmer volunteered to act as bait and entice the monster out of the water, and so the girl approached the Afanc's lake while her father and the rest of the men remained hidden a short distance away. At this point you have to wonder what sort of father lets his daughter do this kind of thing; I guess he just loved his cows more than his children. Standing on the shore she called softly to the Afanc, and like a prize chump he popped his ugly head out of the water and swam towards the girl. Faced with this potentially fatal situation, she could be forgiven for making a run for it, cursing her father for being a truly dreadful parent, leaving the hapless villagers to their fate and moving to a town where the locals didn't think so little of her as to use her as monster bait; instead though, she sang a lullaby. Most people might consider this a risky strategy, but the trick seemed to work and as the Afanc crawled out of the water, he became hypnotised by the sweet song and fell asleep.

Glaslyn, or Llyn y Ffynnon Las as it used to be known (Photo by Nanuls)

The girl signalled to her father and his mates, who were still hiding in the bushes, and so they set about the task of binding the Afanc in the iron chains. The men had only just managed to finish the job when the monster awoke, and was understandably furious about being enticed out of the lake by the promise of a beautiful girl, put to sleep, and bound in chains; the whole event now sounding increasingly like some sort of stag do. The creature thrashed and roared and smashed and flailed and was able to slide back into the water. Fortunately the chains had already been hitched to the oxen, and the Afanc was slowly dragged out of the lake. It would have seemed prudent to kill the monster there and then while it was chained and unable to fight back. But clearly these villagers were ahead of their time; monsters were an essential component of the area's biodiversity in those days and these early conservationists saw fit to preserve it.

The oxen dragged the Afanc up the Lledr Valley, struggling under his immense weight. On the way up a steep mountain field one of the oxen was pulling so hard that it lost an eye – it popped right out of the socket under the strain of the endeavour, and the tears the oxen shed formed Pwll Llygad yr Ych, (Pool of the Ox’s Eye). But losing an eye was nothing to one of Hu Gardan's oxen and they pulled the monster all the way up Snowdon’s lower solpes to Llyn Ffynnon Las. There the chains of the Afanc were released, and with a roar, the monster leapt straight into the deep blue water that was to become his new home, where he could trouble the villagers no more - just shepards, miners, hikers, climbers, tourists and the occasional goat.

After that story, I think its time to return to reality, to the world of geology in this case. To the south west just below Cadair Idris' southern slopes, and occupying the same faultline as Llyn Tegid, is Tal-y-llyn Lake, also known as Llyn Mwyngil. The lake is worth mentioning as, unlike the other valley lakes in the region, Tal-y-llyn does not occupy a hollow carved out by Pleistocene glaciers; instead it's origin is later. The lake owes its existence to a massive landslide which occurred during the Late Glacial period, when a large portion of Graig Goch gave way, leaving a massive scar on the hillside. The debris from the landslide blocked the valley, acting as a damn and allowing the formation of the lake. Despite thousands of years of erosion the landslide scar can still be clearly seen when viewed from Cadair Idris.

Llyn Mwyngil. You can see the prominent landslide scar on the far side of the lake (Photo by Nanuls)

A more recent addition to the area's landscape is another of Snowdonia's largest lakes, Llyn Trawsfynydd, a man-made reservoir located near the village of Trawsfynydd from which the lake takes its name. It covers an area of 1180 acres and as such is larger than Llyn Tegid. The lake was originally created in 1928 to supply water to the Maentwrog hydro-electric power station, and was later also used to supply cooling water to Trawsfynydd's twin reactor nuclear power station, used for the commercial generation of electricity for the UK National Grid. Despite the lakes size it's actually quite shallow and is consequently one of the area's warmest water bodies.

Talking of power stations, another of the area's famous lakes is the Llyn Marchlyn Mawr Reservoir on the northern flank of Elidir Fawr in the Glyderau. The lake is used by the Dinorwig Power Station as part of a 1728 MW hydroelectric pump-storage system that operates through a man-made cavern within the mountain. At times of peak electricity use, water is quickly pumped through six 288MW turbines reaching peak production within 6 seconds.

The creation of new lakes in Wales has never been particularly popular, and the damming of the Afon Tryweryn to create Llyn Celyn had repercussions that went beyond simple issues of water abstraction. The reservoir was constructed between 1960 and 1965 to support the water abstractions from the River Dee as part of the River Dee regulation system, and provide water for Liverpool and parts of the Wirral. Construction of the reservoir involved flooding the village of Capel Celyn and adjacent farmland, a move which evoked considerable anger since the village was seen as a stronghold of Welsh culture and the Welsh language, whilst the reservoir was being built to supply England.

This famous piece of protest graffiti in Ceredigion reads Cofiwch Dryweryn (Remember Tryweryn) in memory of the flooding of Capel Celyn (Photo by Nanuls)

The legislation enabling the development was passed in 1957 despite the opposition of 35 out of 36 Welsh Members of Parliament, with the 36th not voting. The villagers waged an eight year campaign to save their village, unfortunately their efforts were in vain and when the valley was flooded in 1965, the village and its buildings, including the post office, the school, and a chapel with cemetery, were all lost. Twelve houses and farms were drowned, and 48 people of the 67 who lived in the valley lost their homes.

The construction led to an increase in support in the Welsh nationalist party, Plaid Cymru, and sharpened debate within the party about the use of direct action. Plaid emphasised its constitutional approach to stopping the development, however some members frustrated with their inability to stop the development by attempting to sabotage the power supply at the site of the dam in 1962.

A more serious repercussion was the formation of the militant group, Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru (Welsh Defence Movement) or MAC, which blew up a transformer on the dam construction site in February 1963. MAC would carry out a number of bombings between 1963 and 1969, many of which were directed towards water and power infrastructure ;however they also bombed the Temple of Peace and Health in Cardiff's civic centre, a tax office in Cardiff, the Welsh Office building in the same city. In 1969 two members, Alwyn Jones and George Taylor, attempted to sabotage the investiture of the Prince of Wales by bombing the railway line at Abergele on which the royal carriage would travel, but were killed when their bomb exploded prematurely. In 1963 a second militant group, Byddin Rhyddid Cymru (Free Wales Army) were established in response the perceived lacklustre efforts of MAF.

At the official opening, which took place on 21st October 1965, representatives of Liverpool Council were met by a Plaid Cyrmru protest as well as members of MAC and the FWA. The ceremony lasted less than 3 minutes, for protesters had cut the microphone wires, and the chants of the hundreds of protesters rendered the speeches inaudible.

The area's lakes are often busy with water sports enthusiasts with canoeing, sailing, swimming, and on the larger waterbodies, motorboating all taking place. There are several watersports centres within the park, the most prestigious being Plas y Brenin, which holds courses on Llynau Mymbyr near Moel Siabod; and Gwersyll yr Urdd Glan-llyn, which has a centre on the shores of Llyn Tegid.

Over Snowdonia the mean annual temperature at low altitudes varies from about 9.5 °C to 10.5 °C, with the higher values occurring around or near to the coasts. The mean annual temperature decreases by approximately 0.5 °C for each 100 m increase in height so that, on this basis, Snowdon (at 1,085 m) would have an annual mean temperature of about 5 °C.

In winter, temperatures in the area are influenced by those of the surface of the sea, which reach their lowest values in late February or early March. Around the coasts, February is thus normally the coldest month, but inland there is little to choose between January and February as the coldest month.

Some of the highest winter temperatures in the British Isles have been recorded in North Wales. These high winter temperatures (up to 18 °C on occasion) occur when a moist south to south-easterly airflow warms up downwind of Snowdonia after crossing the mountains, an effect known as the föhn after its more dramatic manifestations in the Alps. July is normally the warmest month in Wales, and the highest temperatures of all have occurred furthest away from the cooling influence of the Atlantic.

Owing to Snowdonia's close proximity to the sea, snow is comparatively rare. On average the number of days each year when sleet or snow falls in Snowdonia totals over 40 and the average number of days where snow lies on the ground exceed 30.

Three areas - the Dyfi Estuary Biosphere Reserve, Cwm Idwal and Llyn Tegid - are Ramsar Sites, which are wetlands of international importance, listed and protected under a UN directive.

There are 17 National Nature Reserves within the Park's boundary; more than in any other National Park in England and Wales; and 56 Sites of Special Sites of Scientific Interest (SSSI). In Llyn Tegid, the largest natural lake in the Wales, lives another Snowdonia rarity, the Gwyniad, a unique sub-species of the European white fish, trapped in the lake since the end of the last Ice Age over 10,000 years ago.

Possibly the most famous plant that grows in area is the aptly named Snowdon Lily (Lloydia serotina), an arctic alpine plant found on high peaks, and is unique to Snowdonia. So too are the equally appropriately named Snowdonia hawkweed (Hieracium snowdoniense) and Snowdon or Rainbow Beetle (Chrysolina cerealis).

Probably the most noticeable animal presence in the park are its sheep (Ovis aries), which were introduced to the area by the first Stone Age farmers, and then in the middle ages, with the realisation that more money could be made from meat and wool than grain, their numbers were expanded, and have subsequently been farmed in the region ever since.

On the higher mountain slopes feral goat (Capra hircus) cling to the steepest most exposed precipices. The goats were bought to Snowdonia approximately 4,000 years ago by Neolithic nomadic pastoralists, who were the first farmers, when they came to Britain from continental Europe. Today there is a population of approximately 500 goats in the area, distributed unevenly across the Glyderau, Rhinogydd, Snowdon and the lower slopes around Parc Padarn in the Llanberis Valley. In recent years the population have become a problem for local farmers and the National Park Authority, as according to one of the park’s conservation statements, "[The goats] can potentially kill entire cohorts of trees. They can severely affect tree regeneration. There is also evidence that they do cause short-term localised loss of forage to farmers”. Amusingly, in 2007 one woman reported that she had spent thousands of pounds on garden plants, only to have them all eaten by a herd of 50 goats. Culling has been used as a method to control their numbers, however this is extremely unpopular among some conservationists and a source of conflict within the park.

Deer were once common throughout the area, however thanks to over hunting in the 17th and 18th centuries, and a general loss of habitat to agriculture, their numbers have dwindled and are now only occasionally seen. In 1584 Sir John Price even made a special note of the plentiful number of deer in Caernarfonshire and Meirionydd, which was incidentally probably the last time deer were widespread in the area. Having said that, if you’re lucky, it's still possible to spot small herds of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama) and a late addition to the area, Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi). The muntjac is an alien species to Britain, and have generally had a negative impact on native biodiversity. They tend to out-compete roe deer for food sources and have a habit of damaging sensitive woodland species. Unfortunately they're a shy and elusive species, and so are difficult to cull humanely.

The largest wild animals in Snowdonia, and in fact the largest wild animals in Britain, for they are found nowhere else, are the Welsh mountain ponies (Equus caballus) of the Carneddau. They are smaller and hardier than other breeds of pony, and have been found to be hugely adaptable animals, and were once used throughout the British Empire from the Arctic tundra of Canada to the Sahel belt of North Africa. There are thought to be somewhere between 150 - 200 ponies living off the mountains, and are thought to have inhabited the area for at least 500 years. Although they are technically owned by the landowners whose land they live on, they aren’t managed in any way, and live off whatever food grows on the mountain. Like other large herbivores they travel in family herds sometimes up to 20 strong, with some stallions moving between herds in search of new mares to mate with.

Historically carnivores and larger mammals have not faired well in Snowdonia, and are considerably rarer today than they where when Geraldus, or even Lheud, Pennant and Borrow visited the area. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has faired particularly badly in the war against the gamekeepers and farmers; but despite its persecution, the fox is still quite numerous, but still somewhat unloved. The fox inhabit a remarkable range of habitats and are just as likely to be seen on the highest mountains as they are in the area’s valleys and woodlands. Of all Snowdonia’s nocturnal animals, it’s the one that is most likely to be seen during daylight hours. Tradition has it that there are two types fox in Wales: the mountain fox, large, strong, swift and grey; and the lowland fox, smaller, redder and not such a good runner. The mountain fox used to be called the ’milgi’ (the grey-hound); and the lowland fox was known as the ’corgi’ (the cur-fox). Modern science, at least if you look at the records of the Local Records Centre, does not recognise this distinction, but you never know, there might be something in it.

The Eurasian badger (Meles meles) is another of the area’s animals, which is either loved or hated depending on who you talk to. Although there is no strong evidence to support such a theory, the badger is believed by some to be a carrier of tuberculosis, and is thought to spread it among cattle. Every so often the government proposes a cull of the population, which is fervently opposed by conservationists and naturalists and strongly supported by farmers. Badgers usually inhabit lowland deciduous woodlands where the earth is deep enough to permit their extensive burrowing; on occasion however, they can be found to occupy burrows higher up on hillsides, although never beyond the bracken line. Although a member of the weasel family, in Wales the badger has been traditionally thought of as a type of wild pig, their name in Welsh being ’mochyn ddaear’ which means ‘hog of the earth’. During the early Middle Ages, the Welsh hunted them for their meat, their hind quarters being made into hams and served up on ceremonial occasions.

European otters (Lutra lutra) are also now rather scarce, and although they have quite extensive territories, they are mostly confined to the deeper lowland rivers, estuaries and coast; for it is here that fish are most readily found. They are more often heard than seen, but if your lucky you might spot them swimming amongst the rocks and reeds of one of the area’s larger valley lakes – my personal tip is to check out Llyn Mwyngil where they can sometimes be seen from the road.

Snowdonia's most elusive and distinguished mammal is probably the pine-martin (Martes martes). Pine-martins were once pretty common in the area; in the 18th century Thomas Pennant describes how widespread the species were, and that its valuable fir was much used for linings to the gowns of magistrates”. However decades of persecution by local gamekeepers has meant that they are now much rarer. This scarcity combined with the fact that the pine-martin is a largely nocturnal animal and tends to have no fixed territory, preferring to wonder far and wide in search of food, means that it’s rarely seen, and estimating its true population very difficult.

The polecat (Mustela putorius) is another of Snowdonia’s most distinctive animals, several varieties of which can be found in the area. The most common type is completely black with a small patch of white fur around its face, however there are also different coloured varieties, usually called red polecats, which vary from straw coloured, sandy and ginger to a bright fox-red. They were originally sighted in the Cambrian Mountains around the beginning of the 20th century, and by the 1930s several were spotted in Meirionydd. Although not as common as they were in the 17th and 18th centuries, the polecat has steadily increased in number throughout the 20th century, and is now probably the most populous of the weasel family; it lives in a variety of habitats including coastal sand dunes, verdant farm land and high coniferous forest.

Stoat (Mustela erminea) and weasel (Mustela nivalis) have also decreased in number since the days of Lheud and Pennant, however it is notoriously hard to estimate populations of nocturnal animals, so they may be more common than observations suggest. In winter a good proportion of Snowdonia’s stoat turn white, blending in with their temporarily pallid surroundings. Like the pine-martin they can be found in a large range of habitats, from valley woodlands to high mountain crags.

Equally elusive, and probably even rarer than the ‘weasels’, is the Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) which was once a common site throughout Britain. In the 20th century the eastern or North American grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), which had been introduced to England the century before, rapidly expanded in number and range, out-competing the red squirrel and taking over its habitat. In February 1955 the first recorded sighting of the grey squirrel was made on the road near Aberdyfi (roadkill), and since then they have spread throughout the area causing the range of the red squirrel to contract dramatically. Today they are confined to scrub-covered hillsides at the highest level of deciduous woodland, especially in ores and dingles; or in high conifer plantations; for neither of these habitats are popular with grey squirrels. This makes squirrel conservation a funny thing, as it’s completely at odds with current ideas on sustainable forestry development.

Among the area’s most common mammals is the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Like the red fox, some people believe that there are two variations of European rabbit in Snowdonia – rock rabbits which are smaller, hardier, do not burrow and live high up in the mountains; and the larger, less hardy, burrowing rabbits of the lowlands. Whether this is true or not has never been scientifically proven. Myxomatosis arrived in Snowdonia in 1954 and decimated the rabbit population, and although populations can expand quite quickly in localised areas, Myxomatosis always returns to reduce their numbers.

The area has two species of hare. The Brown hare (Lepus europaeus) is the most common. They can be found up to around 1,500 to 2,000 feet in altitude, but are most common on low lying wet ground near the coast, deciduous woodland, and young conifer plantations where the deep grass of the initial stages of forestry makes excellent cover. The mountain hare (Lepus timidus) is less common, and is a late introduction to the area, bought in from Scotland and Ireland by 19th century landowners to add sporting interest to the upland stock. They did well for many years, and although not naturally suited to the area, some of their descendents are still thinly distributed upon the highest mountains.

Smaller mammals and rodents inhabit the less exposed and often heavily vegetated valley floors and forests including European mole (Talpa europaea), West European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), Eurasian common shrew (Sorex araneus), Eurasian pygmy shrew (Sorex minutus), Eurasian water shrew (Neomys fodiens), field vole (Microtus agrestis), bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus), harvest mouse (Micromys minutus), wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis) and brown rat (Rattus norvegicus).

The area is home to another order of small mammal – the bat (Chiroptera), with many species found throughout the area. The most diverse range of bat species can be found in the Meirionnydd Oakwoods and Bat Sites Special Area of Conservation which stretches from Dolgellau in the south to Eryri in the north. The SAC includes maternity roost sites in various types of buildings and structures; and winter hibernation sites, especially in mines. There are other types of roost too such as night, transitional, leks and swarming sites, about which very little is known. Recorded sightings include pipistrelle bat (Pipistrellus pipistrellus sensu lato), soprano pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pygmaeus), brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus), Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii), greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum), lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros), barbastelle bat (Barbastella barbastellus), Bechstein's bat (Myotis bechsteinii), greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis), whiskered bat (Myotis mystacinus) and Brandt's Bat (Myotis brandtii).

Halichoerus grypusAtlantic Grey Seal (Photo by Nanuls)

Snowdonia is a coastal mountain range, and although one might not usually associate marine mammals with mountains, there’s a chance you will come across some form of marine wildlife while visiting one of area’s beaches or sea cliffs. Cardigan Bay is one of only two areas in the UK hosting a semi-resident population of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncates) (the other is found in the Morray Firth in Scotland) and overall some 200 individuals are estimated to be using the area. Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus), striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus) and white-beaked dolphin (Lagenorhynchus albirostris) are also known to frequent Cardigan Bay but are much less common. Atlantic grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) are more common in the southern half of the bay, however they can also be found as far north as the Barmouth, Harlech and the Lleyn Peninsula, preferring the rockier more secluded bays which the majority of Snowdonia’s coast lacks. Other marine mammals sighted in the area including common/harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) and a number of whale species of which minke whale ( Balaenoptera acutorostrata) is the most common. Other whales rarely visit the bay and are seldom seen if they do, however sightings of humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis), blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), northern right whale (Eubalaena glacialis), long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas), northern bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus), Sowerby's beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens), True's beaked whale (Mesoplodon mirus), Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) and killer whale (Orcinus orca) have been made.

Reptiles are quite rare in Snowdonia, the climate generally being unfavourable towards cold-blooded animals. Adder (Vipera berus), grass snake (Natrix natrix), common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) and slow-worm (Anguis fragilis) are generally the most widespread, although sightings of sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) have been recorded along the coastal zone. Historical evidence suggests that adders, Britain’s only venomous snake, were once much more common in the area. In fact in 1936 they were so numerous in the Artro Valley in Meirionydd that workers had to be insured against snake-bite (these being the days before the NHS). Unfortunately, perhaps because of their poisonous bite, adders have been persecuted almost everywhere in Britain, and their numbers are now much smaller. Today adders are generally confined to the drier valley floors and coastal plain, however they can sometimes be found in peat bogs or on wet patches of sphagnum moss. Grass-snakes do better, their preference for damp, even watery habitats make them naturally suited to the area. Among the more unusual visitors to the area are leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) and Kemp's Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) which have all been recorded within the catchment area of the Pen Lleyn and Sarnau Special Area of Conservation.

Amphibians are relatively few with common frog (Rana temporaria), common toad (Bufo bufo) and palmate newt (Triturus helveticus) being the most common. The common frog can live at some surprisingly high altitudes, sometimes breeding in the highest ponds or peat bogs, even when snow is on the ground and the water partially iced-over. Because of the low temperatures and poor feeding environments some of these higher pools offer, tadpoles can be extremely slow to develop, sometimes taking a year to grow to the size of normal tadpoles. The common toad on the other had prefers the damp and shady ponds of Snowdonia’s valleys, and is rarely found on the high ground. Palmate newt are the only species of newt found throughout the area, although great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) and smooth newt (Triturus vulgaris) can be found locally.

Bird life is also in abundance, with many orders of bird calling Snowdonia, at the very least, a seasonal home. The members of the Corvidae family are one of the area’s most successful avian residents, and in particular its crows (Corvus corone). The carrion crow is the most successful, it’s as at home in the town park as it is on the mountain side. It can be found almost everywhere apart the highest mountain crags, for these are the domain of the birds of prey, and that other member of the Corvidae family, the raven.

Ravens (Corvus corax) are the hardiest of mountain birds, and even in the bitterest winter conditions, they can still be found flying among the highest crags and summits. Even in the arctic winters of 1947, 1963 and 1982 ravens still nested in February as usual. A long hard winter means extra numbers of sheep dying, followed by extra casualties in spring when weakened ewes dye in birth. Not that ravens rely solely on carrion, their diets are remarkably varied and they are adept at finding food; it’s this adaptability that makes them so successful in mountainous regions.

Choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) are the other hardy member of the Corvidae family, and will be a familiar species to mountaineers throughout Europe. They’re much rarer than the raven or crow; however Snowdonia is the seasonal home to a growing metapopulation of birds which largely originate from Ceredigion and Montgomeryshire in the south. In Meirionnydd the impressive crag of Craig yr Aderyn, which rises over 250 metres above the Dysynni Valley, is an important breeding and roosting site for chough. The crag used to regularly support over 1% of the British population of breeding chough, with five or six pairs nesting in holes and crevices, making it at one time the densest population of breeding chough in the British Isles (six pairs in 0.5Km). However, in recent years breeding numbers have declined to 3-4 pairs. Craig yr Aderyn is now more important as a year round roost site, with non-breeders in the summer and high numbers outside the breeding season. According to the Countryside Council for Wales (CCW), during the period 1991/92-1995/96 the average maximum count was 56 individuals, however since then the number of roosting birds has fallen to an average of 18 during the 1999/00-2004/05 period.

The other occupants of the area’s high crags are the birds of prey which patrol the skies in search of food. Species include peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), merlin (Falco Columbarius), hen harrier (Circus cyaneus) and buzzard (Buteo buteo). The area is lucky to retain an indigenous population of peregrines as in the first half of the twentieth century their numbers were severely reduced, caused by the use of poisonous seed dressings. The tainted seeds were picked up by grain-eating birds, which were in turn, preyed on and consumed by the peregrines. Eventually the peregrines accumulated enough poison in their bodies to kill or render them infertile. Fortunately the practice of using poisons on the land was banned in the 1950s and the peregrines have been allowed a revival, although their numbers are nothing compared to what they used to be. Kestrels and buzzards did not suffer in the same way as the peregrines, as their feeding habits differ to those of the falcons, mostly consisting of small rodents and carrion.

The eagles of Snowdon were once thought to be oracles of peace or war, triumph or disaster. It was said that when the circled high in the sky, victory was near, but if they flew low, close to the rocks, the Welsh would be defeated. It was also said that if they cried incessantly, the birds were mourning some impending calamity. These days, we know better... thankfully.

The Park is also blessed with the presence of a number of rare raptors. There are mating pairs of osprey (Pandion haliaetus) inhabiting Cwm Glaslyn and Cwm Cneifion in the southern Mowlwynion, as well as another pair at Ynys Hir on the Ceredigion side of the Dyfi Estuary. A more recent arrival to Snowdonia is the once near extinct red kite (Milvus milvus). In the 1930's the species were down to just a single breeding female, and were constrained to the Cambrian Mountains to the south of Snowdonia. It's thanks to the wildness of Mid Wales', and the hard work and dedication of a few local enthusiasts and farmers that saved it from extinction within Britain’s shores. Even as recently as the 1970s you could travel all day in Mid Wales and not see a single red kite, but today following the widespread appreciation of this magnificent bird and strict conservation measures, it is now thriving and can be found as far north as the Tarren, Dyfi and Aran ranges.

Whereas the birds of prey are more often seen than heard, the Park’s smaller, less conspicuous birds are more often heard than seen. Among the loudest are the cock ring ouzel (Turdus torquatus) and the wren (Troglodytes troglodytes). The ring ouzel favours tall heathery habitats, whether they grow on craggy slopes or peaty moorlands, however they can also be found nesting in old slate quarries, abandoned mines and deserted farmsteads far from the nearest heather. Swift and agile, they are a secretive bird, who will flee for the nearest undergrowth or into the nearest gully, even when you are still a long way off. While the ring ouzel will go unnoticed by most mountaineers and climbers, who by and large are preoccupied with other concerns, the wren is a difficult bird to miss. Despite its diminutive size, this small, brown, dumpy little bird has a powerful call, loud enough to be picked out in a woodland alive with bird song. This is particularly startling if you just happen to be clinging from a precipitous rock face on say Cloggy or Craig Cywarch, and one of them decides to belt out a tune. Their survival in these mountains is quite a surprise, as they aren’t the hardiest of birds and in the lowlands their numbers suffer greatly if afflicted by a severe winter. In Snowdonia however, their numbers remain fairly stable, perhaps because their nesting habits here differ so greatly from their lowland compatriots. In the mountains they live in small caves and hollows, which in the winter, thanks to the stable temperature of the earth, and the insulating effect of the snow outside, can subsist at quite comfortable temperatures. Carl Linnaeus, or who ever decided label them as Troglodytes (the cave dweller), did so for good reason.

The Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis) is another upland species that makes its presence well known, and from June onwards can be found all over Snowdonia. Although numerous, they are extremely shy birds and will flee their perch or nest before you even see them. By late summer the young become independent and they spread all over the hills until no matter where you tread they fly up before you. They most enjoy a remarkable array of upland habitats and are happy living in grass, heather, bracken, rushes and bog. They are most abundant from early summer to late autumn, when food becomes scarce. Over the winter only a few remain and they must become seed eaters to ensure their survival. When the absent pipits return in March, they will fly together as flocks, often 100 or 200 in number.

In fact there are too many small upland, lowland and woodland birds in Snowdonia to be done justice in a section such as this so I shall simply list some of the more interesting remaining species in this paragraph. These include European Nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus), Aquatic Warbler (Acrocephalus paludicola), Marsh Warbler (Acrocephalus palustris), Skylark (Alauda arvensis), Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), Linnet (Carduelis cannabina), Corncrake (Crex crex), Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus), Reed Bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus), Wryneck (Jynx torquilla), Red-Backed Shrike (Lanius collurio), Scottish Crossbill (Loxia scotica), Woodlark (Lullula arborea), Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra), Corn Bunting (Miliaria calandra), Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa striata), Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus), Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix), Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus), Bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula), Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii), Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur), Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) and Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos).

Both red grouse (Lagopus lagopus) and black grouse (Tetrao tetri) in Wales are much scarcer than their northern counterparts in Northumberland and Scotland; but are most common in the Berwynion, on the Migneit Plateau and in the Rhinogydd. Their numbers were once maintained by the gamekeepers of the great estates, however the First World War whisked the keepers away to other occupations, and after the war, estate management was never resumed at the same scale again.

One of the major threats facing the park's biodiversity in recent years has been the growth of Rhododendron ponticum particularly in the area to the south and south east of Beddgelert. The species was introduced from Portugal and Spain during the 19th century as an ornamental plant in the gardens and estates of the local gentry. This fast growing alien species has a tendency to take over and stifle native species from growing. It can form massive towering growths and has a companion fungus that grows on its roots producing toxins that are poisonous to any local flora and fauna for a period of up to seven years after the Rhododendron infestations have been eradicated.

Nature Conservation

Protected Sites in Snowdonia

The UK has a responsibility to ensure the conservation and enhancement of habitats and species in both a national and international context. One approach to achieving this is the establishment of a system of protected sites. The national suites of sites providing statutory protection for flora, fauna, or geological or physiographical features are Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) (Areas of Special Scientific Interest (ASSIs) in Northern Ireland) and Marine Nature Reserves (MNRs). As well as underpinning other national designations (such as National Nature Reserves), this system also provides statutory protection for terrestrial and coastal sites which are important within Europe (Natura 2000 network) and globally (such as Wetlands of International Importance). Further designations exist for sites outside of the national suite (such as Local Nature Reserves), varying in the level of protection afforded. Apart from designations for sites with particular natural features, there are also landscape designations which aim to protect areas of either national (e.g. Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty) or international (e.g. natural World Heritage Sites) significance in terms of their outstanding scenic importance.

Because Snowdonia has such a rich natural heritage and wide variety of habitats much of its landscape is protected by both national and international legislation. There are over 200 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) within, and in close proximity to, the Parks boundary. An SSSI is a conservation designation denoting a protected area within the UK, and may be designated for a wide number of reasons based on their merits as areas of scientific interest. Sites may be notified due to their biological or geological interest and a minority of sites are notified for both. SSSIs are the basic 'building block' of nature conservation legislation and most other legal nature/geological conservation designations are based upon them, including National Nature Reserves, Ramsar Sites, Special Protection Areas, and Special Areas of Conservation.

Main Environmental Stresses in Snowdonia

Snowdonia also has around 15 National Nature Reserves (NNR), which are in effect the next line of protection for nationally important environmental areas. NNRs are usually designated for their broader ecological value rather than for the presence of any rare species. There are however a number of sites which hold important numbers of scarce or rare species. A number of factors may contribute to the designation of a NNR. These may include; how fragile a site is, the size of the site, how 'natural' the site is and the presence of species rich communities. The NNR network represents almost every kind of vegetation type found in the UK.

There is also a large number of sites protected under international law. Special Areas of Conservation and Special Protection Areas are part of the Natura 2000 Networks of sites and are therefore strictly protected under European law. Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) are strictly protected sites designated under the EC Habitats Directive. Article 3 of the Habitats Directive requires the establishment of a European network of important high-quality conservation sites that will make a significant contribution to conserving the 189 habitat types and 788 species identified in Annexes I and II of the Directive (as amended). The listed habitat types and species are those considered to be most in need of conservation at a European level (excluding birds). Of the Annex I habitat types, 78 are believed to occur in the UK. Of the Annex II species, 43 are native to, and normally resident in, the UK.

Special Protection Areas (SPAs) are strictly protected sites classified in accordance with Article 4 of the EC Directive on the conservation of wild birds (79/409/EEC), also known as the Birds Directive, which came into force in April 1979. They are classified for rare and vulnerable birds, listed in Annex I to the Birds Directive, and for regularly occurring migratory species. In the UK, the first SPAs were identified and classified in the early to mid 1980s. Classification has since progressed and a regularly updated UK SPA Summary Table provides an overview of both the number of classified SPAs and those approved by Government that are currently in the process of being classified (these are known as potential SPAs, or pSPAs).

Some of Snowdonia’s best examples of wetland areas have also been listed as Ramsar sites; a type of protection especialy designed for wetlands of international importance designated under the Ramsar Convention. Sites proposed for selection are advised by the UK statutory nature conservation agencies, or the relevant administration in the case of Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies, co-ordinated through the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC). In selecting sites, the relevant authorities are guided by the Criteria set out in the Convention. The UK also has a national Ramsar Committee composed of experts who provide further advice.